What is mercantalism?

Mercantilism is a national economic policy aimed at accumulating monetary reserves through a positive balance of trade , especially of finished goods . Mercantilism dominated Western European economic policy and discourse from the 16th to late-18th centuries. [ 1 ] Mercantilism was a cause of frequent European wars and also motivated colonial expansion. Mercantilist theory varied in sophistication from one writer to another and evolved over time. High tariffs , especially on manufactured goods, are an almost universal feature of mercantilist policy. Other policies have included: Building a network of overseas colonies; Forbidding colonies to trade with other nations; Monopolizing markets with staple ports ; Banning the export of gold and silver, even for payments; Forbidding trade to be carried in foreign ships; Export subsidies; Promoting manufacturing with research or direct subsidies; Limiting wages; Maximizing the use of domestic resources; Restricting domestic consumption with non-tariff barriers to trade . Mercantilism in its simplest form was bullionism , but mercantilist writers emphasized the circulation of money and rejected hoarding. Their emphasis on monetary metals accords with current ideas regarding the money supply, such as the stimulative effect of a growing money supply . Specie concerns have since been rendered moot by fiat money and floating exchange rates . In time, the heavy emphasis on money was supplanted by industrial policy , accompanied by a shift in focus from the capacity to carry on wars to promoting general prosperity. Mature neomercantilist theory recommends selective high tariffs for "infant" industries or to promote the mutual growth of countries through national industrial specialization [ citation needed ]. The term "mercantilism" was coined by its foremost critic Adam Smith . [ 2 ] While many nations practised it, one leading exemplar was France, the economically most important state, where king Louis XIV followed the guidance of Jean Baptiste Colbert , his controller general of finances (1662-83). They were determined that the state should rule in the economic realm as it did in the diplomatic, and that the interests of the state as identified by the king were superior to those of merchants and everyone else. The goal of economic policies was to build up the state, especially in an age of incessant warfare, and the state should look for ways to strengthen the economy and weaken foreign adversaries. [ 3 ] Influence Edit This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2010) Mercantilism was the dominant school of thought in Europe throughout the late Renaissance and early modern period (from the 15th to the 18th century). Mercantilism encouraged the many intra-European wars of the period and arguably fueled European expansion and imperialism – both in Europe and throughout the rest of the world – until the 19th century or early 20th century. Evidence of mercantilistic practices appear in early modern Venice , Genoa , and Pisa regarding control of the Mediterranean trade of bullion . However, as a codified school, mercantilism's real birth is marked by the empiricism of the Renaissance , which first began to quantify large-scale trade accurately. [ 4 ] England began the first large-scale and integrative approach to mercantilism during the Elizabethan Era (1558–1603). An early statement on national balance of trade appeared in Discourse of the Common Weal of this Realm of England , 1549: "We must always take heed that we buy no more from strangers than we sell them, for so should we impoverish ourselves and enrich them." [ 5 ] The period featured various but often disjointed efforts by the court of Queen Elizabeth to develop a naval and merchant fleet capable of challenging the Spanish stranglehold on trade and of expanding the growth of bullion at home. Queen Elizabeth promoted the Trade and Navigation Acts in Parliament and issued orders to her navy for the protection and promotion of English shipping. A systematic and coherent explanation of balance of trade was made public through Thomas Mun 's argument England's Treasure by Forraign Trade, or the Balance of our Forraign Trade is The Rule of Our Treasure. It was written in the 1620s and published in 1664. [ 6 ] These efforts organized national resources sufficiently in the defense of England against the far larger and more powerful Spanish Empire , and in turn paved the foundation for establishing a global empire in the 19th century. [ citation needed ]The authors noted most for establishing the English mercantilist system include Gerard de Malynes and Thomas Mun , who first articulated the Elizabethan System , which in turn was then developed further by Josiah Child . Numerous French authors helped cement French policy around mercantilism in the 17th century. This French mercantilism was best articulated by Jean-Baptiste Colbert (in office, 1665–1683), though policy liberalised greatly under Napoleon . In Europe, academic belief in mercantilism began to fade in the late 18th century, especially in Britain, in light of the arguments of Adam Smith and the classical economists . The repeal of the Corn Laws by Robert Peel symbolised the emergence of free trade as an alternative system. Neomercantilism is a 20th-century economic policy that uses the ideas and methods of neoclassical economics . The new mercantilism has different goals and focuses on more rapid economic growth based on advanced technology. It promotes such policies as substitution state taxing, subsidizing, spending, and general regulatory powers for tariffs and quotas, and protection through the formation of supranational trading blocs. [ 7 ] Theory Edit Most of the European economists who wrote between 1500 and 1750 are today generally considered mercantilists; this term was initially used solely by critics, such as Mirabeau and Smith, but was quickly adopted by historians. Originally the standard English term was "mercantile system." The word "mercantilism" was introduced into English from German in the early 19th century. The bulk of what is commonly called "mercantilist literature" appeared in the 1620s in Great Britain. [ 8 ] Smith saw English merchant Thomas Mun (1571–1641) as a major creator of the mercantile system, especially in his posthumously published Treasure by Foreign Trade (1664), which Smith considered the archetype or manifesto of the movement. [ 9 ] Perhaps the last major mercantilist work was James Steuart ’s Principles of Political Economy published in 1767. [ 8 ] "Mercantilist literature" also extended beyond England. Italy and France produced noted writers of mercantilist themes including Italy's Giovanni Botero (1544–1617) and Antonio Serra (1580–?); France's, Jean Bodin , Colbert and other physiocrats . Themes also existed in writers from the German historical school from List, as well as followers of the "American system" and British "free-trade imperialism," thus stretching the system into the 19th century. However, many British writers, including Mun and Misselden , were merchants, while many of the writers from other countries were public officials. Beyond mercantilism as a way of understanding the wealth and power of nations, Mun and Misselden are noted for their viewpoints on a wide range of economic matters. [ 10 ] Merchants in Venice The Austrian lawyer and scholar Philipp Wilhelm von Hornick , in his Austria Over All, If She Only Will of 1684, detailed a nine-point program of what he deemed effective national economy, which sums up the tenets of mercantilism comprehensively: [ 11 ] That every little bit of a country's soil be utilized for agriculture, mining or manufacturing. That all raw materials found in a country be used in domestic manufacture, since finished goods have a higher value than raw materials. That a large, working population be encouraged. That all export of gold and silver be prohibited and all domestic money be kept in circulation. That all imports of foreign goods be discouraged as much as possible. That where certain imports are indispensable they be obtained at first hand, in exchange for other domestic goods instead of gold and silver. That as much as possible, imports be confined to raw materials that can be finished [in the home country]. That opportunities be constantly sought for selling a country's surplus manufactures to foreigners, so far as necessary, for gold and silver. That no importation be allowed if such goods are sufficiently and suitably supplied at home. Other than Von Hornick, there were no mercantilist writers presenting an overarching scheme for the ideal economy, as Adam Smith would later do for classical economics. Rather, each mercantilist writer tended to focus on a single area of the economy. [ 12 ] Only later did non-mercantilist scholars integrate these "diverse" ideas into what they called mercantilism . Some scholars thus reject the idea of mercantilism completely, arguing that it gives "a false unity to disparate events". Smith saw the mercantile system as an enormous conspiracy by manufacturers and merchants against consumers, a view that has led some authors, especially Robert E. Ekelund and Robert D. Tollison to call mercantilism "a rent-seeking society". To a certain extent, mercantilist doctrine itself made a general theory of economics impossible. [ 13 ] Mercantilists viewed the economic system as a zero-sum game , in which any gain by one party required a loss by another. [ 14 ] Thus, any system of policies that benefited one group would by definition harm the other, and there was no possibility of economics being used to maximize the "commonwealth", or common good. [ 15 ] Mercantilists' writings were also generally created to rationalize particular practices rather than as investigations into the best policies. [ 16 ] Mercantilist domestic policy was more fragmented than its trade policy. While Adam Smith portrayed mercantilism as supportive of strict controls over the economy, many mercantilists disagreed. The early modern era was one of letters patent and government-imposed monopolies ; some mercantilists supported these, but others acknowledged the corruption and inefficiency of such systems. Many mercantilists also realized that the inevitable results of quotas and price ceilings were black markets . One notion mercantilists widely agreed upon was the need for economic oppression of the working population; laborers and farmers were to live at the "margins of subsistence ". The goal was to maximize production, with no concern for consumption . Extra money, free time, or education for the " lower classes " was seen to inevitably lead to vice and laziness, and would result in harm to the economy. [ 17 ] Infinite growth Edit The mercantilists saw a large population as a form of wealth which made possible the development of bigger markets and armies . The opposing doctrine of physiocracy predicted that mankind would outgrow its resources. The idea of mercantilism was to protect the markets, but it also helped to maintain the agriculture and those who were dependent upon it. Origins Edit Scholars debate over why mercantilism dominated economic ideology for 250 years. [ 18 ] One group, represented by Jacob Viner , sees mercantilism as simply a straightforward, common-sense system whose logical fallacies remained opaque to people at the time, as they simply lacked the required analytical tools. The second school, supported by scholars such as Robert B. Ekelund , portrays mercantilism not as a mistake, but rather as the best possible system for those who developed it. This school argues that rent-seeking merchants and governments developed and enforced mercantilist policies. Merchants benefited greatly from the enforced monopolies, bans on foreign competition, and poverty of the workers. Governments benefited from the high tariffs and payments from the merchants. Whereas later economic ideas were often developed by academics and philosophers, almost all mercantilist writers were merchants or government officials. [ 19 ] Monetarism offers a third explanation for mercantilism. European trade exported bullion to pay for goods from Asia, thus reducing the money supply and putting downward pressure on prices and economic activity. The evidence for this hypothesis is the lack of inflation in the British economy until the Revolutionary and Napoleonic wars when paper money came into vogue. A fourth explanation lies in the increasing professionalisation and technification of the wars of the era, which turned the maintenance of adequate reserve funds (in the prospect of war) into a more and more expensive and eventually competitive business. Mercantilism developed at a time of transition for the European economy. Isolated feudal estates were being replaced by centralized nation-states as the focus of power. Technological changes in shipping and the growth of urban centres led to a rapid increase in international trade. [ 20 ] Mercantilism focused on how this trade could best aid the states. Another important change was the introduction of double-entry bookkeeping and modern accounting. This accounting made extremely clear the inflow and outflow of trade, contributing to the close scrutiny given to the balance of trade. [ 21 ] Of course, the impact of the discovery of America cannot be ignored. [ citation needed ]New markets and new mines propelled foreign trade to previously inconceivable heights. The latter led to "the great upward movement in prices" and an increase in "the volume of merchant activity itself". [ 22 ] Prior to mercantilism, the most important economic work done in Europe was by the medieval scholastic theorists. The goal of these thinkers was to find an economic system compatible with Christian doctrines of piety and justice. They focused mainly on microeconomics and on local exchanges between individuals. Mercantilism was closely aligned with the other theories and ideas that began to replace the medieval worldview. This period saw the adoption of the very Machiavellian realpolitik and the primacy of the raison d'état in international relations . The mercantilist idea of all trade as a zero-sum game, in which each side was trying to best the other in a ruthless competition, was integrated into the works of Thomas Hobbes . The dark view of human nature also fit well with the Puritan view of the world, and some of the most stridently mercantilist legislation, such as the Navigation Ordinance of 1651, was enacted by the government of Oliver Cromwell . [ 23 ] Jean-Baptiste Colbert 's work in seventeenth century France came to exemplify classical mercantilism. In the English-speaking world its ideas were criticized by Adam Smith with the publication of The Wealth of Nations in 1776 and later David Ricardo with his explanation of comparative advantage . Mercantilism was rejected by Britain and France by the mid-19th century. The British Empire embraced free-trade and used its power as the financial centre of the world to promote the same. The Guyanese historian Walter Rodney describes mercantilism as the period of the world-wide development of European commerce, which began in the fifteenth century with the voyages of Portuguese and Spanish explorers to Africa, Asia and the New World. Policies Edit French finance minister and mercantilist Jean-Baptiste Colbert served for over 20 years. Mercantilist ideas were the dominant economic ideology of all of Europe in the early modern period, and most states embraced it to a certain degree. Mercantilism was centred in England and France, and it was in these states that mercantilist polices were most often enacted. France Edit Mercantilism arose in France in the early 16th century, soon after the monarchy had become the dominant force in French politics. In 1539, an important decree banned the importation of woolen goods from Spain and some parts of Flanders . The next year, a number of restrictions were imposed on the export of bullion. [ 24 ] Over the rest of the sixteenth century further protectionist measures were introduced. The height of French mercantilism is closely associated with Jean-Baptiste Colbert , finance minister for 22 years in the 17th century, to the extent that French mercantilism is sometimes called Colbertism . Under Colbert, the French government became deeply involved in the economy in order to increase exports. Protectionist policies were enacted that limited imports and favored exports. Industries were organized into guilds and monopolies, and production was regulated by the state through a series of over a thousand directives outlining how different products should be produced. [ 25 ] To encourage industry, foreign artisans and craftsmen were imported. Colbert also worked to decrease internal barriers to trade, reducing internal tariffs and building an extensive network of roads and canals. Colbert's policies were quite successful, and France's industrial output and economy grew considerably during this period, as France became the dominant European power. He was less successful in turning France into a major trading power, and Britain and the Netherlands remained supreme in this field. [ 25 ] Great Britain Edit In England, mercantilism reached its peak during the Long Parliament government (1640–1660). Mercantilist policies were also embraced throughout much of the Tudor and Stuart periods, with Robert Walpole being another major proponent. In Britain, government control over the domestic economy was far less extensive than on the Continent , limited by common law and the steadily increasing power of Parliament. [ 26 ] Government-controlled monopolies were common, especially before the English Civil War , but were often controversial. [ 27 ] The Anglo-Dutch Wars were fought between the English and the Dutch for control over the seas and trade routes. With respect to its colonies, British mercantilism meant that the government and the merchants became partners with the goal of increasing political power and private wealth, to the exclusion of other empires. The government protected its merchants – and kept others out – by trade barriers, regulations, and subsidies to domestic industries in order to maximize exports from and minimize imports to the realm. The government had to fight smuggling – which became a favorite American technique in the 18th century to circumvent the restrictions on trading with the French, Spanish or Dutch. The goal of mercantilism was to run trade surpluses, so that gold and silver would pour into London. The government took its share through duties and taxes, with the remainder going to merchants in Britain. The government spent much of its revenue on a superb Royal Navy, which not only protected the British colonies but threatened the colonies of the other empires, and sometimes seized them. Thus the British Navy captured New Amsterdam (New York) in 1664. The colonies were captive markets for British industry, and the goal was to enrich the mother country. [ 28 ] British mercantilist writers were themselves divided on whether domestic controls were necessary. British mercantilism thus mainly took the form of efforts to control trade. A wide array of regulations was put in place to encourage exports and discourage imports. Tariffs were placed on imports and bounties given for exports, and the export of some raw materials was banned completely. The Navigation Acts expelled foreign merchants from England's domestic trade. The nation aggressively sought colonies and once under British control, regulations were imposed that allowed the colony to only produce raw materials and to only trade with Britain. This led to friction with the inhabitants of these colonies, and mercantilist policies (such as forbidding trade with other empires and controls over smuggling) were a major irritant leading to the American Revolution . Over all, however, mercantilist policies had a positive impact on Britain helping turn it into the world's dominant trader, and an international superpower [ citation needed ]. One domestic policy that had a lasting impact was the conversion of "waste lands" to agricultural use. Mercantilists felt that to maximize a nation's power all land and resources had to be used to their utmost, and this era thus saw projects like the draining of The Fens . [ 29 ] Mercantilism helped create trade patterns such as the triangular trade in the North Atlantic, in which raw materials were imported to the metropolis and then processed and redistributed to other colonies. Other countries Edit The other nations of Europe also embraced mercantilism to varying degrees. The Netherlands, which had become the financial centre of Europe by being its most efficient trader, had little interest in seeing trade restricted and adopted few mercantilist policies. Mercantilism became prominent in Central Europe and Scandinavia after the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648), with Christina of Sweden , Jacob Kettler of Courland , Christian IV of Denmark being notable proponents. The Habsburg Holy Roman Emperors had long been interested in mercantilist policies, but the vast and decentralized nature of their empire made implementing such notions difficult. Some constituent states of the empire did embrace Mercantilism, most notably Prussia, which under Frederick the Great had perhaps the most rigidly controlled economy in Europe. During the economic collapse of the seventeenth century Spain had little coherent economic policy, but French mercantilist policies were imported by Philip V with some success. Russia under Peter I (Peter the Great) attempted to pursue mercantilism, but had little success because of Russia's lack of a large merchant class or an industrial base. Wars and imperialism Edit Mercantilism was economic warfare and was well suited to an era of military warfare. [ 30 ] Since the level of world trade was viewed as fixed, it followed that the only way to increase a nation's trade was to take it from another. A number of wars, most notably the Anglo-Dutch Wars and the Franco-Dutch Wars , can be linked directly to mercantilist theories. Most wars had other causes but they reinforced mercantilism by clearly defining the enemy, and justified damage to the enemy's economy. Mercantilism fueled the imperialism of this era, as many nations expended significant effort to build new colonies that would be sources of gold (as in Mexico) or sugar (as in the West Indies), as well as becoming exclusive markets. European power spread around the globe, often under the aegis of companies with government-guaranteed monopolies in certain defined geographical regions, such as the Dutch East India Company or the British Hudson's Bay Company (operating in present-day Canada). Criticisms Edit Much of Adam Smith's The Wealth of Nations is an attack on mercantilism. Adam Smith and David Hume were the founding fathers of anti-mercantilist thought. A number of scholars found important flaws with mercantilism long before Adam Smith developed an ideology that could fully replace it. Critics like Hume, Dudley North , and John Locke undermined much of mercantilism, and it steadily lost favor during the 18th century. In 1690, John Locke argued that prices vary in proportion to the quantity of money. Locke's Second Treatise also points towards the heart of the anti-mercantilist critique: that the wealth of the world is not fixed, but is created by human labor (represented embryonically by Locke's labor theory of value ). Mercantilists failed to understand the notions of absolute advantage and comparative advantage (although this idea was only fully fleshed out in 1817 by David Ricardo ) and the benefits of trade. [ 31 ] For instance, suppose Portugal was a more efficient producer of wine than England, yet in England cloth could be produced more efficiently than it could in Portugal. Thus if Portugal specialized in wine and England in cloth, both states would end up better off if they traded. This is an example of the reciprocal benefits of trade due to a comparative advantage . In modern economic theory, trade is not a zero-sum game of cutthroat competition because both sides can benefit. Hume famously noted the impossibility of the mercantilists' goal of a constant positive balance of trade [ citation needed ]. As bullion flowed into one country, the supply would increase and the value of bullion in that state would steadily decline relative to other goods. Conversely, in the state exporting bullion, its value would slowly rise. Eventually it would no longer be cost-effective to export goods from the high-price country to the low-price country, and the balance of trade would reverse itself. Mercantilists fundamentally misunderstood this, long arguing that an increase in the money supply simply meant that everyone gets richer. [ 32 ] The importance placed on bullion was also a central target, even if many mercantilists had themselves begun to de-emphasize the importance of gold and silver. Adam Smith noted at the core of the mercantile system was the "popular folly of confusing wealth with money," bullion was just the same as any other commodity, and there was no reason to give it special treatment. [ 8 ] More recently, scholars have discounted the accuracy of this critique. They believe Mun and Misselden were not making this mistake in the 1620s, and point to their followers Josiah Child and Charles Davenant , who, in 1699, wrote: "Gold and Silver are indeed the Measure of Trade, but that the Spring and Original of it, in all nations is the Natural or Artificial Product of the Country; that is to say, what this Land or what this Labour and Industry Produces." [ 33 ] The critique that mercantilism was a form of rent-seeking has also seen criticism, as scholars such Jacob Viner in the 1930s point out that merchant mercantilists such as Mun understood that they would not gain by higher prices for English wares abroad. [ 34 ] The first school to completely reject mercantilism was the physiocrats, who developed their theories in France. Their theories also had several important problems, and the replacement of mercantilism did not come until Adam Smith published The Wealth of Nations in 1776. This book outlines the basics of what is today known as classical economics . Smith spends a considerable portion of the book rebutting the arguments of the mercantilists, though often these are simplified or exaggerated versions of mercantilist thought. [ 19 ] Scholars are also divided over the cause of mercantilism's end. Those who believe the theory was simply an error hold that its replacement was inevitable as soon as Smith's more accurate ideas were unveiled. Those who feel that mercantilism was rent-seeking hold that it ended only when major power shifts occurred. In Britain, mercantilism faded as the Parliament gained the monarch's power to grant monopolies. While the wealthy capitalists who controlled the House of Commons benefited from these monopolies, Parliament found it difficult to implement them because of the high cost of group decision making . [ 35 ] Mercantilist regulations were steadily removed over the course of the Eighteenth Century in Britain, and during the 19th century the British government fully embraced free trade and Smith's laissez-faire economics. On the continent, the process was somewhat different. In France, economic control remained in the hands of the royal family and mercantilism continued until the French Revolution . In Germany mercantilism remained an important ideology in the 19th and early 20th centuries, when the historical school of economics was paramount. [ 36 ] Legacy Edit Adam Smith rejected the mercantilist focus on production, arguing that consumption was paramount to production. He added that mercantilism was popular among merchants because it was what is now called " rent seeking ". [ 37 ] However John Maynard Keynes argued that encouraging production was just as important as consumption, and he favoured the "new mercantilism". Keynes also noted that in the early modern period the focus on the bullion supplies was reasonable. In an era before paper money , an increase for bullion was one of the few ways to increase the money supply . Keynes said mercantilist policies generally improved both domestic and foreign investment. Domestic because the policies lowered the domestic rate of interest. And it increased investment by foreigners in the nation by tending to create a favorable balance of trade. [ 38 ] Keynes and other economists of the 20th century also realized the balance of payments is an important concern. Keynes also supported government intervention in the economy as necessity, as did mercantilism. [ 39 ] As of 2010 [update] , the word "mercantilism" remains a pejorative term, often used to attack various forms of protectionism . [ 40 ] The similarities between Keynesianism, and its successor ideas, with mercantilism have sometimes led critics to call them neo-mercantilism . Indeed, Paul Samuelson , writing within a Keynesian framework, defended mercantilism, writing: "With employment less than full and Net National Product suboptimal, all the debunked mercantilist arguments turn out to be valid." [ 41 ] Some other systems that do copy several mercantilist policies, such as Japan's economic system , are also sometimes called neo-mercantilist. [ 42 ] In an essay appearing in the 14 May 2007 issue of Newsweek , business columnist Robert J. Samuelson argued that China was pursuing an essentially mercantilist trade policy that threatened to undermine the post- World War II international economic structure. [ 43 ] Murray Rothbard , representing the Austrian School of economics, describes it this way: Mercantilism, which reached its height in the Europe of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, was a system of statism which employed economic fallacy to build up a structure of imperial state power, as well as special subsidy and monopolistic privilege to individuals or groups favored by the state. Thus, mercantilism held exports should be encouraged by the government and imports discouraged. [ 44 ] In one area economists rejected Smith well before Keynes: in the use of data. Mercantilists, who were generally merchants or government officials, gathered vast amounts of trade data and used it extensively in their research and writing. William Petty , a strong mercantilist, is generally credited with being the first to use empirical analysis to study the economy. Smith rejected this, arguing that deductive reasoning from base principles was the proper method to discover economic truths. Today, many schools of economics accept that both methods are important. In specific instances, protectionist mercantilist policies also had an important and positive impact on the state that enacted them. Adam Smith himself, for instance, praised the Navigation Acts as they greatly expanded the British merchant fleet, and played a central role in turning Britain into the naval and economic superpower from the 18th Century onward. [ 45 ] Some economists thus feel that protecting infant industries , while causing short-term harm, can be beneficial in the long term. Nonetheless, the publication of The Wealth of Nations in 1776 had a profound impact on the end of the mercantilist era [ when? ]and the later adoption of free-market policy. By 1860, England removed the last vestiges of the mercantile era. Industrial regulations, monopolies and tariffs were withdrawn. [ citation needed ) by prof kaijage tabaro. Udsm. Kabone publisher

JIHAD WAR MEANS ? Read from here.....

TheJihadicmovements of the Western Sudan in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries can be seen as a sort of “grassroots” political movement turned revolutionary. Unlike the military conquests in Northern Africa, they were started by rural peoples to reform their own areas, thus they were revolutions, not conquests. Sheikh Usman dan Fodio’s SokotoJihadis the best known of the Western Africajihads, the most successful, and the first in the area to officially be declared as ajihad. [1]This uprising was caused by a confluence of factors. The Fulbe and Hausa peoples had long-standing ethnic and particularly religious hostilities, which drove a desire for political independence. Also, there is emergence of Sh. Usman himself, a credible Islamic leader to organize the resistance. Starting in the late seventeenth century, early efforts to establish Islamic states in Western Sudan provided some impetus toward later movements such as the SokotoJihad. However, while these revolutions were successful in establishing nominally Muslim governments and removing governments that had suppressed the religion, there was little effort to engage scholars (many of whom opposed them on religious grounds) or to universalize the movements intodaral-Islam, or a sense of community with other Islamic states. This is why they were not, strictly speaking,jihads, though they are sometimes referred to as such. [2]Jihadliterally means “struggle” and was already a part of established Islamic doctrine. Specifically, it means struggle to improve the self or society or to do the will of God, not necessarily for religious reasons. [3]Jihad al-sayf,orJihadof the sword, which I discuss here, is just one category of this. It means a struggle to defend the faith or theummah,the global Islamic community. It is obligatory that all Muslims struggle for righteousness. Unlike the earlier movements, the SokotoJihadwas framed in scholarly religious terms and great pains were taken to ensure doctrinal justification. [4] In the late eighteenth century, the area of Hausaland, in what is now Northern Nigeria, was in a state of crisis and social disarray. Ethnic divisions between the Fulbe people, who were mostly nomadic herdsman, and the ruling agrarian Hausa people persisted despite the groups having inhabited the same area for about five hundred years. Not only did the groups have different dominant occupations, their societies were structured very differently. They mostly spoke different languages and while both groups were largely Muslim, this was much truer of the Fulbe than the Hausa, whose kings still practiced traditional “native” religions. The non-Muslim Fulbe’s religion was quite different from the traditional religion of the Hausa and Fulbe Muslims saw Hausa Muslims as insufficiently pious. The population was growing, making it increasingly difficult for the Fulbe to move their herds. This increased tensions over land-control and limited the migratory Fulbe’s ability to escape conflict by moving on. Corruption was widespread in the Hausa government, with appointments being based on bribes, rather than merit. [5]It was into this situation that the Fulbe Sh. Usman dan Fadio was born in 1754, in Gobir, a state in Northern Hausaland. Sh. Usman dan Fodio began his political career around 1774 as an itinerant preacher, assailing the corruption of Islam through mixture with various local religions and the acceptance of many forbidden practices such as consumption of alcohol, women going unveiled and men taking more than four wives. He already was a scholar of some reputation, who had studied under al- Hajj Jibrilla ibn Umar, who taught that Muslims who do not follow Islamic law and do things like neglect the poor, live opulent lifestyles or freely mix men and women are, in fact, unbelievers. While Sh. Usman disagreed with his teacher on this, the commitment to restoring a pure Islam free from outside influence remained. He built a considerable following among the peasants of the area over the coming years, particularly, but not exclusively, in his own Fulbe ethnic group. Dan Fodio’s ancestors had migrated to Gobir in the first place because of oppression in Konni, but over time, the situation in Gobir also became increasingly oppressive. The various Hausa states were constantly at war with one another and sustained this practice through conscription. This forced Muslim men to fight in wars that were illegal under Islamic law. The Hausa had restricted Islamic religious practices such as prayer-calls and turbans and imprisoned some adherents for violating these laws. Also, as dan Fodio saw it, the government charged excessive taxes with no basis in the Koran. These taxes only applied to Muslim-dominated trades like herding and were designed to economically exploit the faithful. [6] Sh. Usman’s leadership ability soon earned him wider credibility and recognition. By 1789, he had amassed enough of a following that Bawa Jan Garzo, King of Gobir, viewed him as a political threat. He feared theJama’a, or autonomous Muslim community, was becoming too organized and this could make his own leadership redundant. This was, in fact, a quite reasonable concern. Dan Fodio attempted to meet with him in order to teach him about Islam and convert him to the faith, but this did not succeed. It only left the king assured he was dangerous. Jan Garzo attempted to have him killed by encouraging otherUlemas, or Muslim scholars, to conspire against him. However, dan Fodio was able to persuade them to support him, leaving the king with little support and forcing him to drop plans for assassination. In fact, Jan Garzo had inadvertantly validated Sh. Usman’s leadership and religious views. The Sheikh demanded the king free religious prisoners, allow the call to prayer, exempt Muslims from the draft and reform the discriminatory dress code and tax laws. The king agreed and a temporary peace was formed. Sh. Usman dan Fodio and Bawa Jan Garzo were now at least nominally allies. However, this was on dan Fodio’s terms. While the Sheikh did perform an intercessory prayer for him, much in the tradition of the older forms of court Islam, he did not actually become a member of the court. It does appear that he continued to visit Jan through the rest of his reign, but this is disputed. After this time, he moved to the town of Degel nearby. The first attempt to stop his rise to power had not only left him alive and free, but greatly increased his influence. [7] Sh. Usman dan Fodio was an important figure in the revolutions not just because of his political and scholarly talent, but because of his mystical experiences. His authority was based on a series of visions where he claimed to have been visited by the Prophet Mohammed as well as Abd al-Aqir al Jilani, founder of the mystical Qadiriyye order to which dan Fodio belonged. In 1794, he said they gave him “The Sword of Truth” and a mission to fight the enemies of Islam. He was reputed to be asharif, or descendant of the Prophet through his daughter, Fatima, and have the ability to perform miracles, though he may not have believed this himself. He never directly made any such claims in his writings, only oblique references, though this be modesty or uncertainty. [8]These factors combined elevated him to someone of far more significance than a mere scholar. He was not just a learned man, but a holy man with a divine mission. This is what ultimately gave him the authority to declarejihad. Dan Fadio’s increased profile only deepened conflict with Hausa leaders, but he continued to prevail. His successes with Bawa Jan Garzo legitimized perceptions that theJama’awere loyal to him rather than the king and were quickly becoming more powerful and more organized. Bunu Nafta, the new king, resented these offenses against his sovereignty. In 1800, he reinstituted many of the oppressive rules of his predecessors. He banned turbans for men and veils for women as well as proselytization of Islam, essentially trying to remove it from public visibility and keep the movement from growing. He captured and enslaved the Sheikh’s followers when possible, leading dan Fadio to order them to arm themselves for self-defense. Thus, the agreement on which the truce was based was now broken and in many ways things were even worse for theJama’athan before. Surprisingly though, this escalation in itself did not lead to open war. Nafta soon died, but the situation did not improve. In 1802, Nafta’s successor, Yunfa, attempted to personally kill Sh. Usman. Yunfa had an apparent seat built over the mouth of a well. This was a trap made in such a way that anyone who sat on it would fall to their death. However, Sh. Usman did not accept the seat. At this point, Yunfa drew a gun and fired, but a misfire spared his target while injuring Yunfa himself. [9]Much as had happened thirteen years earlier, the Sheikh not only survived the Hausu king’s attempt on his life, but benefited from it. In this case, Yunfa had delivered an apparent miracle. He had opened hostilities and turned public perception in dan Fodio’s favor. Hostilities further escalated the next year when Yunfa’s army once again enflamed religious hostilities. They were passing Gimabana, where Abdulsalami, a follower of Sh. Usman dan Fodio, lived. They demanded he offer a prayer blessing and send the town’s women out to cheer them, as was the local custom. Abdulsalami refused as this would have violatedpurdah,the Islamic principle of separation of the sexes and he saw it as an affront to the women’s dignity. Yunfa was enraged when he heard this and was determined to make an example of the town for their poor hospitality in order to prevent future insubordination. He sent his army back to capture the inhabitants, including the women, and bring them in for interrogation. To complete the insult to Islam, the women were stripped nearly naked and shackled for their march and their books, including theKoran,were burned. However, the party had to pass close by Degel. Sh. Usman raised a force and made the army release all Muslim captives. The humiliation of the prisoners is what caused full war. The protection and sanctity of womanhood was a very deeply held value in Islamic culture. This was the start of actual military conflict. [10]Once again, the Hausa leaders had escalated conflict with dan Fodio, only to lose. Now, not only did theJama’ahave more reason than ever to overthrow the Hausa government, they had an army and a general. War was inevitable at this point as the king could not let an attack on his army go unanswered. He raised a larger army and sent them to besiege Degel, forcing Sh. Usman to make ahijra, or flight.. Yunfa orderedHausaleaders to kill all theFulbepeople, who fled to Sh. Usman for protection, making his leadership official and giving him a large army. In 1804, he issued his declaration ofJihad. [11] The official motivation for theJihad, which is to say the one in the declaration, was the necessity of establishing acaliphateto rule over Muslims. Acaliphate, ruled by acaliph, is a form of government based on Islamic law. The declaration builds the case point by point that a kingdom ruled by a Muslim king is a Muslim kingdom and a kingdom ruled by a heathen is a heathen kingdom. When Muslims live in a heathen land they must perform ahijra. Apostates and backslidden Muslims who pay lip service to the religion but do not follow its precepts must be forced back into compliance. Since it is obligatory for all Muslims to promote righteousness and fight evil, all Muslims must force their leaders to convert to Islam or replace them, by force if necessary, or through flight to a Muslim state. This case is built on points of Islamic law where Sh. Usman believed there was consensus. These principles date back to the very founding of Islam, when Mohammed was both the religious and secular leader of the Muslim community. [12] The religious motivations do seem to be sincere. Beyond apostates, there was no effort to force non-believers to convert, though they did have to pay extra taxes much as Muslims had in earlier times. Several areas, in fact, did not convert but continued to coexist peacefully with the SokotoCaliphateafter the revolution was over in 1809. Rules of fair warfare based on Islamic Law were painstakingly followed, even though it meant giving up significant advantages in many cases. [13]However, it is important to remember that while Sh. Usman led theJihad,his followers may have had their own reasons for joining. Abdulsalami, one of the heroes of the Gimabana humiliation, got into a dispute over division of spoils and ultimately declared his own jihad against the SokotoCaliphate.Unlike most of the movement leaders, he was not a Fulbe. [14]This shows some degree of power motive and likely also ethnic conflict, but these were clearly mostly subordinate to religious motives. Sh. Usman, in fact, soon stepped down from his position ascaliphto return to a life of scholarship. [15] The declaration ofJihadwas widely circulated among the Muslim community and spread to neighboring states, such as Kano, Katsina and Daura, who had similar conflicts against theirHausarulers. The new capital of Sokoto was established, and the movement continued to expand until the Sokoto Caliphate covered most ofHausaland. [16]Obviously, there was no single cause for every participant and place. While there were long-standing conflicts over religious practice and its proper place in government and public life, these do not necessarily lead to open war, much less acaliphate. I can easily imagine a scenario where limited hostilities could have gone on indefinitely or where the Fulbe overthrew the Hausa, but just established a Muslim king rather than an Islamic governmental system. Therefore, the main causes of thejihadwere the emergence of a viable leader among theFulbeand an unusually confrontationalHausaking and the religious rationale that focused the conflict on global issues and expanded it far beyond its origins. Reference kaijage ,T. Et al. Historian society... Kabone publisher. Daressalaam

Ronaldo anatisha kweli soma hapa

Mwamuzi aliyechezesha mchezo wa ligi kuu ya Hispania kati ya Athetico Bilbao VS Real Madrid na kumtoa kwa kadi nyekundu mwanasoka bora wa dunia Cristiano Ronaldo wikiendi iliyopita amesimamishwa. Kamati ya marefa nchini Spain imemuadhibu refa Miguel Angel Ayza Gamez kwa kumsimamisha kwa mwenzi mzima na huku akiondolewa katika isti ya marefa watakaochezesha mechi za Real Madrid zilizobakia msimu huu. Refa huyo alitoa kadi nyekundu kwa Ronaldo ambayo ilionekana kuwa na utata mkubwa jambo lilopelekea malalmiko kutoka kwa klabu ya Real Madrid. Kutokana na kadi hiyo nyekundu ya moja kwa moja Ronaldo amefungiwa kucheza mechi tatu na atazikosa mechi tatu zijazo za timu yake dhidi ya Villarreal, Getafe na Elche. Hata hivyo kufungiwa kwa refa huyo aliyemsababishia kufungiwa huko kunaweza kuipa nguvu Real Madrid kukata rufaa dhidi ya kadi hiyo ya Ronaldo.

Je unamfahamu mchezaji mwenye kasi kuliko wote dunian..

East Africa Television (EATV) Je, unamfahamu mchezaji wa mpira wa miguu (Football) mwenye kasi zaidi duniani? Hii hapa ndiyo listi ya kumi bora, kuanzia namba 10 hadi anayeongoza namba 1. 10. Alex Sanchez - Barcelona (30.7 KPH = 18.7 MPH) 9. Arjen Robben - Bayern Munich (30.7 KPH = 19.1 MPH) 8. Frank Ribbery - Bayern Munich (30.7 KPH = 19.1 MPH) 7. Wayne Rooney - Manchester United (32.1 KPH = 19.9 MPH) 6. Lionell Messi - Barcelona (32.5 KPH = 20.2 MPH) 5. Theo Walcott - Arsenal (32.7 KPH = 20.3 MPH) 4. Cristiano Ronaldo - Real Madrid (33.6 KPH = 20.9 MPH) 3. Aaron Lennon - Tottenham Hotspur (33.8 KPH = 21 MPH) 2. Gareth Bale - Real Madrid (34.7 KPH = 21.6 MPH) 1. Antonio Valencia - Manchester United (35.2 KPH = 21.9 MPH) Yesterday at 3:00p

Nguvu za kiume hupungua ktk ndoa.. Soma sababu na tiba hapa....

KATIKA MAPENZI... !LINATOKEAJE?!!ELIMIKA KWA KUSOMA HAPA...! Kesiyawanaume kupungukiwa nguvu za kiume zimezidi kushika kasi, kiasi cha kufanya dawa za kuongeza nguvu hizo kuwa maarufu na zenye mahitaji makubwa katika jamii. Waganga wa kienyeji wamekuwa wakitumia dawa hizo kama tiba ya msingi ya kuwavutia wateja kwenye biashara zao. Hii inaonesha kuwa tatizo hili ni kubwa miongoni mwa wanaume wengi katika jamii yetu. Hata hivyo, utafiti unaonesha kwamba wengi kati ya wanaume waliowahi kutumia dawa za asili na zile za hospitali kuondokana na tatizo la upungufu wa nguvu za kiume hawakufanikiwa kupata tiba ya kudumu, matokeo yake wamegeuzwa kuwa watumwa wa kila wanapotaka kushiriki tendo lazima wabwie ‘kolezo’ la kuwasaidia kuamsha hisia zao. Kwa wanaume, ukosefu wa nguvu nijambolinalouma na kuondoa kabisa ujasiri. Wengi kati yao wako tayari kutumia pesa na uwezo wao wote kuhakikisha kuwa heshima ya tendo la ndoa ikuwa katika miliki yao daima. Lakini, watafiti wa masuala ya mapenzi nikiwemo mimi, tumegundua kuwa wengi kati ya hao wanaolalamika kupungukiwa nguvu za kiume, hawafahamu chanzo cha matatizo na namna wanavyoweza kuepukana na kasoro hizo. Ushahidi uliopatikana kwa waathirika wa tatizo hili, unaonesha kuwa wanaume wanapokabili upungufu wa nguvu za kiume huishia kujuta na kujilaumu wenyewe bila kutazama upande wa pili wa washirika wao, namaanisha wanawake. Zipo kesi za wanaume kujiua au kujinyofoa sehemu zao zasirikwa sababu ya kushindwa katika tendo la ndoa. Hali hii inatoa picha kwamba wanaume wengi hujitwika mzigo wa lawama wenyewe. DoktaBiancaP. Acevedo kutoka Chuo Kikuu chaCalifornia,Santa Barbaraanasema, wanawake huchangia kwa kiasi kikubwa tatizo la upungufu wa nguvu za kiume, jambo ambalo nami nalithibitisha kwa ushahidi wa kitaalamu ufuatao: 1: KAULI Miongoni mwa mambo ambayo mwanaume hataki kuyasikia yakitoka kwenye kinywa cha mwanamke ni kuambiwa HAWEZI TENDO LA NDOA. Mwanamke akimwambia mwanaume wakati au baada ya tendo kuwa hawezi, atakuwa amemsababishia tatizo kubwa la kisaikolojia ambalo litampelekea kupotea nguvu za kiume taratibu. Msaada unaohitajika kwa mwanamke anayekutana na mwanaume dhaifu kwenye tendo si kumwambia hawezi,balini kumtia moyo na kumsaidia kuweza. Wanawake wamewasababishia waume zao upungufu wa nguvu za kiume kwa kuwaambia maneno kama haya: “Yaani siku hizi sijui umekuwaje, yaani huwezi kazi kabisa!” 2 : UJUZI Wanawake wengi hasa waliopo kwenye ndoa, wanapuuza ujuzi kwenye tendo la ndoa. Hawajishughulishi kumsaidia mwanaume ‘kuwika’, si wabunifu na watundu, jambo hili humfanya mwanaume kushiriki tendo kwa kutegemea kupanda kwa hisia zake mwenyewe, hivyo anapokuwa amechoka au ana mawazo, hawezi kusisimka kwa vile hapati ushirikiano toka kwa mwenzake. Pamoja na wengi kutokuwa wajuzi, lakini wapo wengine ambao ni watundu mno kwenye sita kwa sita kiasi cha kumfanya mwanaume ajione kama mgeni wa mchezo huo. Kimtazamo, wanaume hupenda sana ushindi wakati wa ‘kazi’, lakini pale wanapogeuzwa ‘chekechea’ hupunguza uwezo wa kujiamini na kuruhusu hofu kuongezeka mawazoni mwao, hivyo kuwasababishia tatizo la upungufu wa nguvu za kiume. Inashauriwa kwamba, mwanamke anapokuwa na uelewa mkubwa wa masuala ya mapenzi hasa wakati wa tendo, asioneshe kiwango kikubwa kwa haraka bali amchukulie mwenzake kama mwanafunzi, asiwe na maneno kama: “Leo nakuja kukupa vitu adimu kuliko vya juzi, hakuna kulala kasi mtindo mmoja.” Kauli hizi huwaogopesha wanaume na kuwafanya wapungukiwe na nguvu. USAFI Mwanamke anapokuwa si msafi, huweza kumsababishia mwanaume matatizo ya upungufu wa nguvu za kiume. Sote tunafahamu umuhimu wa usafi wa mwili na kero za uchafu wakati wa tendo, hivyo ni wazi kuwa mwanamke akiwa mchafu atamfanya mwanaume apoteze msisimko na uwezo wa tendo la ndoa. Unadhifu wa mavazi na mwili ni muhimu sana katika mapenzi. GUBU Jambo lingine linaloweza kumsababishia mwanaume upungufu wa nguvu za kiume ni gubu au karaha za maneno ya uchokozi yasiyokuwa na kichwa wala miguu. Uchokonozi wa mambo, ugomvi, usaliti na hali ya kutokuwa na staha ni mambo yanayosababisha tatizo la upungufu wa nguvu za kiume. Mwanamke anapokuwa mwingi wa maneno ya kashfa, dharau na matusi huweza kumfanya mume amchukie na kutopenda kushiriki naye tendo. Uchunguzi unaonesha kwamba wanawake walioolewa wenye tabia hii, huwafanya waume zao wawe na msisimko wa kimapenzi kwa wanawake wa nje kuliko wake zao hao. USALITI Tabia ya usaliti kwa mwanamke ni chanzo kingine cha mwanaume kupata tatizo la upungufu wa nguvu za kiume. Mwanaume anapoona, kuhisi au kubaini kuwa anasalitiwa, huumia sana moyoni, maumivu ambayo hatimaye humfanya muhusika kuwa na mawazo mengi ambayo humuondolea hamu ya tendo.